Mechanics: Punctuation
Punctuation marks are symbols used in languages to convey certain aspects of speaking and directions to the reader or speaker. Punctuation tells a reader how to read a set of words.
Ending Marks
English has three commonly used ending marks: The period, the exclamation, and the question mark. These marks are used to signify the end of a thought.
Period
Use a period (.) to end a declarative sentence, certain imperative sentences or an indirect question.
For example:
Declarative: My favorite author just released a new book.
Imperative: Walk the dog.
Indirect Question: I was wondering where the library was.
Exclamation Mark
Use an exclamation mark (!) to end an exclamatory sentence, an interjection or certain imperative sentences. Exclamation marks should be reserved for statements with strong emotion and should be used sparingly. For example:
Exclamatory: This dress costs three thousand dollars!
Imperative: Give that back or I’ll pinch you!
Interjection: Gee Wilikers, Batman!
In some instances, an interjection can come before an exclamatory sentence. If this happens, you can either choose to put an exclamation mark after the interjection and at the end of the sentence, or set the interjection off with commas. For example:
My goodness, what big eyes you have!
-or-
My goodness! What big eyes you have!
Question Mark
Use a question mark to end a direct question, an incomplete question or a statement meant to be taken as a question. For example:
Direct Question: Where are the blue plates?
Incomplete question: What color?
Statement: They have seventy cats?
Commas
Commas are one of the most widely used punctuation marks in the English language, and also one of the most misused. There are many rules governing when to use a comma.
Conjunctions
Two complete sentences joined by a conjunction should be separated with a comma. For example:
The girls baked cupcakes, while the boys made mud pies.
In this sentence, the conjunction while joins the two clauses. It should be noted that if the conjunction is not joining two complete sentences, no comma is needed.
Lists/Series
A list or series of three or more items should be joined by commas. Traditionally, there is one less comma than number of items in the series. For example:
We will need tents, sleeping bags, flashlights, and marshmallows for camping.
There are four items in the list, so there are three commas. This rule has been slightly changed over the years. It is permissible to leave out the last comma before the conjunction; however, you must pick an option and use it consistently.
Items that are used so frequently together that they are considered a single item do not need to be separated with commas and instead should be joined with a conjunction. Examples include bread and butter, coffee and cream, salt and pepper, etc.
Adjectives
Adjectives of equal merit should be separated with commas. In order to determine if adjectives are of equal merit, ask yourself if you can put “and” between the adjectives and have the same meaning. The order of the adjectives should also be unimportant. For example:
The big, smelly, dog jumped on her.
This sentence could be rewritten as “The smelly and big dog jumped on her,” so commas are needed to separate the adjectives of equal merit.
Adjectives that must remain in a special order do not need to be separated with commas. For example:
Several sticky lollipops were found.
In this sentence, the adjectives “several” and “sticky” must remain in that order, so no commas are needed.
Introductions
A comma is necessary after an introductory word, phrase or clause. Introductory words include yes/no, names, expressions, and adverbs. For example:
No, I will not go to the movies.
Ryan, bring me my notebook!
Obviously, I’m a dinosaur.
Introductory phrases include prepositional phrases, participial phrases, and infinitive phrases. With prepositional phrases, if they are four words or less a comma is not needed. For example:
Prepositional: Deep within the dark, creepy caves, I lost my flashlight.
Participial: Walking along the path, I saw beautiful flowers.
Infinitive: To get to the doctor when scheduled, I had to speed the whole drive there.
Clauses can also introduce a sentence, particularly an adverbial clause. An adverbial clause is a clause that describes the action of the sentence. For example:
With utter and absolute passion, I kicked the ball.
The beginning phrase answers the question “in what fashion?” in respect to the verb, making it an adverbial clause.
Parenthetical Expressions
A parenthetical expression is a word or phrase that is nonessential to the rest of the sentence and irrelevant to the meaning. Nouns of direct address, adverbs in certain situations, and common expressions are all parenthetical expressions. Parenthetical expressions should be set off from the rest of the sentence with commas. For example:
Alice, it is time to go to the mall.
It is time, Alice, to go to the mall.
By the way, I found your keys in the couch.
I found your keys, by the way, in the couch.
Commas are only used to set off nonessential information in a sentence. Therefore, it is very important to learn to distinguish between the essential and the nonessential. If something is nonessential, it could be removed from the sentence and make no difference to the meaning. For example:
Essential: My sister Caitlynn is a great cheerleader.
Nonessential: Caitlynn, my sister, is a great cheerleader.
The information in the first sentence is all essential, while the second sentence would mean the same thing without the parenthetical phrase “my sister.”
Dates
Dates are written differently in different places, however most English speaking countries use this date format: Day of the week, month day, year. For example:
Wednesday, March 10, 2010.
If the date contains only a month and a year, commas are not necessary. The same is true if the parts of the date are joined by a preposition. For example:
October 2000 is one of the wettest months on record!
I was born on March 10 in 1992.
Geographical Locations
When a geographical name contains two or more parts, use a comma after each. For example:
I visited Berlin, Germany.
Numbers
Numbers should be set off in increments of three with commas. For example:
1,000,000,000,000
Different dialects of English punctuate numbers differently, but this is standard for American English.
Omissions
Sometimes a comma is used in place of a word that was previously stated in the sentence. For example:
I swim quickly; you, very slowly.
In that sentence, the comma indicates that the verb swim applies to both “I” and “you.”
Quotations
Use commas to set off the speaker of a direct quotation. For example:
He said, “I found the box.”
“I found the box,” he said.
“Great job,” she replied, “I love that box.”
Avoiding Confusion
At certain times, a comma is necessary to clarify the meaning of a sentence. This is usually caused by words being placed together that could be interpreted in more than one way. In order to make sure you’re understood, use commas. For example:
I ate peanut butter and you?
I ate peanut butter, and you?
The second sentence provides a much clearer meaning.
Semicolons
Independent Clauses
Semicolons (;) are used to join independent sentences that do not have a conjunction and to clarify meaning. For example:
The boy hiked all day; he was very tired that night.
In this instance, a semicolon is needed. However...
The boy hiked all day, so he was very tired that night.
In this sentence, a semicolon is not needed because a comma and conjunction is already present. Semicolons and conjunctions should not be mixed.
The sentences being joined by a semicolon must be complete sentences, not fragments. In addition, the sentences should be related to one another.
Semicolons can also be used to join to independent clauses joined with a conjunctive adverb. For example:
I think you’re correct; however, the textbook contradicts you.
Semicolons can also be used with transitional phrases connecting to independent clauses. For example:
I needed to get an A on the test; because of this, I studied all night.
Lists
Semicolons are also used to separate items in a list when the items themselves contain commas. For example:
I have homework in my science class, taught by Mr. Smith; my math class, taught by Mrs. Jane; and my social studies class, taught by Ms. Doe.
Colons
Lists
Colons (:) can be used to set off a list of items that follows an independent clause. For example:
I am responsible for many things: my cat, my dog and my turtle.
A colon is needed here because the list of animals follows the complete sentence, I am responsible for many things.
Quotations
In formal writing, a colon can be used to introduce a formal quotation, such as a transcript. In casual writing and stories, a comma is used instead. A long quotation can be set off with a colon. If no he said/she said phrase is present (such as a script), a colon is also needed instead of a comma. For example:
The professor stated: “Quantum physics is an imperfect and fascinating science that we shall delve into today during our lecture. We shall examine...”
Anne stormed into the room: “What on Earth have you done with my shoes?”
Explanatory
A colon can be used when a sentence elaborates on or explains the one that came before it. For example:
Remember: They say to always look before you leap.
Emphasizing an Appositive
A colon can be used in place of a comma to add additional meaning to an appositive phrase. For example:
I forgot one key element of planning my trip: packing my suitcase.
Dashes
Drama
Dashes are used to indicate something dramatic or abrupt happening within a sentence. For example, they can set off an abrupt change of thought:
I cannot ever even begin to forgive him-- oh, I can’t bear to think about it!
Interruptions
Any information that interrupts the main idea of the sentence can be set off with dashes. For example:
Frosted flakes- which are coated in sugar- are on sale today at the market.
If the idea interrupting the sentence is a question or exclamation, place the punctuation mark before the last dash. For example:
The movie- have you seen it?- was very scary.
Summary
Dashes can also set off summaries. Summary sentences often begin with these, this, all, or that. For example:
To have my book published- that was my goal.
Nonessential Information
Things like parenthetical phrases and appositives are set off with dashes when the expression is long, already contains punctuation or for drama. For example:
The cat- who, in my opinion, smelled very bad- ate whatever it could find.
Hyphens
Numbers
Hyphens are used when writing out the numbers twenty-one through ninety-nine. Hyphens are also used when a fraction is being used as an adjective. For example:
The glass was two-thirds full.
In this case, the fraction describes the glass. If the fraction has been used as a noun, no hyphen would be needed.
Prefixes
Proper nouns preceded by a prefix require a hyphen. For example:
mid-October
pre-Victorian
The prefixes all, ex, and self always have a hyphen. For example:
self-motivated
ex-wife
Compounds
Some compound words require a hyphen. For example:
life-size
bull’s-eye
There are no set regulations regarding what words are hyphenated and what words contain a space. When in doubt, consult a dictionary.
Compound modifiers also use hyphens when they come before the noun. For example:
The pinkish-purple sky was beautiful that night.
If the modifier comes after the noun, no hyphen is used. For example:
The beautiful sky that night was pinkish purple.
There are some exceptions to this rule. Certain words are defined as always being hyphenated modifiers, regardless of position. The rule also does not apply to compound modifiers that end in -ly or compound proper modifiers.
Clarity
A hyphen can often be used for clarification purposes. For example:
A new college student
This phrase could be hyphenated as a new-college student or a new college-student, both of which have different meanings. Individual words can also be hyphenated to clarify meaning. For example, co-op as opposed to coop.
End of Lines
If a word will not fully fit on one line of text, a hyphen can be used to divide it. All division should always occur by syllables. For example:
The dog barked loud-
ly at me.
The hyphen is always placed at the end of the upper line, never at the beginning of the next. One syllable words should never be divided on different lines. A single letter should never be left along either. For example, though the word steady is two syllables, the second syllable consists of only one letter, thus making this word indivisible. Proper nouns and adjectives should never be divided, and words containing hyphens should only be divided where the hyphen already exists.
Parentheses and Brackets
Explanations
Parentheses () can be used to set off explanation that are either multiple sentences long or unessential to the meaning of a sentence. For example:
I expect Ms. Smith (the girl that recently fell down the steps by the office) will have her report finished on time.
Numbers
A person’s date of birth or death can be set off with parentheses, as well as any other numerical information. For example:
Leonardo da Vinci (1452-1419) painted the Mona Lisa.
Numbers used to organized a series are also set off in parentheses. For example:
I need (1) a pencil; (2) paper; and (3) an eraser.
The same rules also apply to using letters to organize a series.
Capitalization and Punctuation Within
If a parenthetical phrase interrupts a sentence, the first word inside the parentheses is not capitalized, unless it is proper and no ending punctuation is used; however, if the statement is an exclamation or question, the initial letter is capitalized and an end mark is used. For example:
We drove to Alaska (I hadn’t wanted to come.). It was a ten hour drive.
In a sentence with a parenthetical phrase, any punctuation that corresponds to the main sentence is placed outside the second parentheses. For example:
It was piping hot outside (90 degrees)!
I read a book (250 pages); however, I disliked it.
If the parenthetical phrase comes between two independent clauses, use an initial capital and an end mark.
Apostrophes
Apostrophes are used for two things: creating contractions and showing possession.
Contractions are words or phrases with certain letters removed. An apostrophe is put in place of the missing letters. For example:
won’t
In this case, the apostrophe is used to join the words will and not.
Possession is another use of apostrophes. Depending upon if the noun is plural or not, apostrophes are used in different ways.
Singular nouns
To make a singular noun possessive, add an apostrophe and -s. For example:
The child’s toy is lost.
This usage of an apostrophe indicates the toy belongs to the child.
Plural nouns
To make a plural noun possessive, add an apostrophe if the noun ends in -s or -es. For example:
The boys’ toys are loud.
In this sentence, the apostrophe indicates the boys own the toys.
If the plural noun does not end in -s or -es, add an apostrophe and -s to show possession. For example:
The men’s club is selective.
In this sentence, the apostrophe indicates that the men own the club.
Compound Nouns
To make a compound noun possessive, add an apostrophe and -s, or just an apostrophe if the word is plural and already ends with -s or -es, to the word that appears last in the compound. For example:
My mother-in-law’s furniture is outdated.
Joint v. Individual
When two or more nouns come before the object being possessed, it is important to correctly indicate who owns the object. If the object is jointly owned, add an apostrophe and -s to the last noun. For example:
The cat and kitten’s bed was covered in cat hair.
This sentence indicates the bed is shared between the cat and kitten.
If the object is not jointly owned and instead possessed by each individual, add an apostrophe and -s to both nouns. For example:
The cat’s and kitten’s beds were covered in hair.
This sentence indicates that each animal has their own bed.
Pronouns
Indefinite pronouns use apostrophes to show possession. For example:
The planet is everybody’s home.
It needs to be noted that possessive pronouns do not use apostrophes and to do so is incorrect grammar. For example:
His’ car broke down.
This is incorrect. His already shows possession, therefore no apostrophe is needed.
Plurals
An apostrophe is never used to indicate that a word is plural. For example:
I have many pet’s.
This is incorrect. The apostrophe there would indicate the pet owns something, which is not the case. Instead, the sentence should be written without the apostrophe.
Quotation Marks
Direct Quotations
Any statement that was directly said or thought by someone is to be placed within quotation marks. For example:
“I think you’re wrong,” said the boy.
In this sentence, the boy directly said the words within the quotes.
An indirect quotation is not to be placed in quotation marks. Anything that summarizes someone’s words or thoughts is considered an indirect quote.
Unquoted words
Use commas to set off the speaker of a direct quotation. For example:
He said, “I found the box.”
“I found the box,” he said.
“Great job,” she replied, “I love that box.”
Notice the placement of the commas. When the he/she said phrase comes after the quote, a comma is placed inside the quotes. When the he/she said phrase comes before the quote, the comma is placed on the outside. When the he/she said phrase is in the middle, one comma is within the first set of quotations, and the second is after the he/she said phrase. Also notice that both parts of the quotations are enclosed within quotation marks.
If a phrase comes between two complete sentences that are quotes, an end mark is put inside the quotations and after the phrase. For example:
“I think I’ll be a poet.” said the boy. “I would enjoy being a journalist as well.”
Notice that the word “said” is not capitalized in this instance.
Fragments
When a fragment of a quote is used, the quote is enclosed with quotation marks; however, it is not set off with commas. For example:
I believe she thinks she’s “too good” for that school.
Punctuation with quotes
There are five basic rules when it comes to punctuating quotations:
- Commas and periods are always placed inside the final quotation mark.
- Colons and semicolons are always placed outside the final quotation mark.
- If the end mark is part of the quotation, place a question or exclamation mark inside the final quotation mark.
- If the end mark is not part of the quotation, place a question or exclamation mark outside the final quotation mark.
- If the quotation requires a question or exclamation mark, while the rest of the sentence requires a period, the period is omitted.
Speaker Change
When the speaker of quotations changes, a new paragraph should begin. For example:
“Bob?” Lindsey asked, “where are the spare keys?”
“They’re on the top shelf,” he replied.
Because the speaker changed, a new paragraph was started.
Lengthy Quotes
For quotations that extend into multiple paragraphs, a quotation mark is placed at the beginning of each paragraph, and at the end of the final paragraph. For example:
The article read:
“In fact, in a human trial of 16 patients with follicular B-cell lymphoma, 70 percent of the patients injected with the vaccine had a positive immune response, and there were no reported side effects.
“The treatment is not commercially available yet, and remains in the testing phase. The next step in the treatment is to run a phase-2 clinical trial, and test the vaccine on more people to continue improving and developing the technology.”
Quotation within a Quotation
When a quote occurs within another quote, single quotation marks are used for the inner quote. For example:
The man ended by saying, “Thank you all for coming, and remember, ‘Think before you act.’ ”
Notice, if the inner quote falls at the end of the other quote, the end mark goes inside the single quotation mark.
Titles
Short works, such as short stories or poems, should have their title inside of quotations. For example
“Daddy” is a poem by Sylvia Plath.
We read “The Most Dangerous Game” in our freshman English class.
Titles that occur in a series, such as television show episodes or songs on an album are also placed in quotations. A story that is part of a collection of stories should also be placed in quotation marks.